Discuss The Measures We Can Take to Prevent the Spread of the H1N1 Virus

As we all know, and are aware that, the H1N1 influenza, or the more commonly used name, Swine Flu, has been attacking various citizens throughout the world. This virus is spreading at a steady state and will harm many others unless measures are taken immediately. The world has been under attack from such diseases for an unimaginably long time. There is a long-standing history of viruses, epidemics and plagues blackening our past. Cures have failed; people have died, the major reason being that our ancestors did not take enough preventative measures to oppose the spread of such diseases. However, in today's world, where we have all the privileges a person can dream of, and all sorts of advancements in medical technology, we have a responsibility to make the best use of this awareness and use it to our fullest advantage. In 2005, people were frightened to go to poultry markets for fears of catching Avian Flu, or H1N3, and many precautionary measures were taken to eradicate that virus. With much struggle, we were finally successful. The same sort of preventative measures need to be taken with H1N1. This being a viral disease, in can be transmitted from one person to the next almost instantly. The consumption of pork should be minimized or completely stopped for the time being, in order to aid the prevention of the virus spreading. However, this is also an airborne, contagious virus, so the government should urge medical and pharmaceutical companies to produce a preventative vaccine. Everyone in the country must be inoculated no matter what the side effect are, as long as we eradicate the virus and stop it spreading. Schools should educate and inform children of the dangers of avoiding the use of preventative measures and should give special classes on cleanliness/hygiene and how to dispose correctly of used tissues, for example. These classes should be especially targeted towards children below the age of twelve, as they are more susceptible to the virus than adolescents. As individuals, we all have a duty to one another. We must be aware of the symptoms of this virus, which are a high temperature, a mucus-filled cough, drooping eyelids, weakness up to the point of fatigue, and sometimes diarrhea and/or vomiting. If we spot a fellow classmate or anyone in a public area such as a mall or shopping market demonstrating any of these symptoms, we must inform the school nurse or ask for assistance in the public area immediately and without the slightest delay. This should not be neglected at all. These people deserve the opportunity for treatment as soon as possible. In school, we should ask our senior staff members to make sure there are hand sanitizers available in every corridor and soap in all the bathrooms, so that we may have clean hands at all times. Extra care should be taken to maintain the sanitation and hygiene of the school bathrooms. Also, everyone must keep a bag of antiseptic wipes in their backpack for times when hand sanitizer is unavailable. This will dramatically reduce the risk on infection and will greatly enhance the safety of the pupils and staff alike. This may seem like a lot of effort but to protect our health, and possibly our lives, these measures are extremely essential. Together, we will be able to prevent, or at least minimize, the spread of the H1N1 virus, so that we may live our lives healthily, and without fear.

Patients Rights Essay

The legal interests of persons who submit to medical treatment. For many years, common medical practice meant that physicians made decisions for their patients. This paternalistic view has gradually been supplanted by one promoting patient autonomy, whereby patients and doctors share the decision-making responsibility. Consequently doctor-patient relationships are very different now than they were just a few decades ago. However, conflicts still abound as the medical community and those it serves struggle to define their respective roles. Consent Consent, particularly informed consent, is the cornerstone of patients’ rights. Consent is based on the inviolability of one’s person. It means that doctors do not have the right to touch or treat a patient without that patient’s approval because the patient is the one who must live with the consequences and deal with any dis-comfort caused by treatment. A doctor can be held liable for committing a Battery if the doctor touches the patient without first obtaining the patient’s consent. The shift in doctor-patient relationships seems inevitable in hindsight. In one early consent case, a doctor told a woman he would only be repairing some cervical and rectal tears; instead he performed a hysterectomy. In another case, a patient permitted her doctors to examine her under anesthesia but insisted that they not operate; the doctors removed a fibroid tumor during the procedure. In yet another case, a doctor assured a man that a proposed operation was simple and essentially without risk; the patient’s left hand was paralyzed as a result of the surgery. Consent must be voluntary, competent, and informed. Voluntary means that, when the patient gives consent, he or she is free from extreme duress and is not intoxicated or under the influence of medication and that the doctor has not coerced the patient into giving consent. The law presumes that an adult is competent, but competency may be an issue in numerous instances. Competence is typically only challenged when a patient disagrees with a doctor’s recommended treatment or refuses treatment altogether. If an individual understands the information presented regarding treatment, she or he is competent to consent to or refuse treatment. Consent can be given verbally, in writing, or by one’s actions. For example, a person has consented to a vaccination if she stands in line with others who are receiving vaccinations, observes the procedure, and then presents her arm to a healthcare provider. Consent is inferred in cases of emergency or unanticipated circumstances. For example, if unforeseen serious or life-threatening circumstances develop during surgery for which consent has been given, consent is inferred to allow doctors to take immediate further action to prevent serious injury or death. Consent is also inferred when an adult or child is found unconscious, or when an emergency otherwise necessitates immediate treatment to prevent serious harm or death. Consent is not valid if the patient does not understand its meaning or if a patient has been misled. Children typically may not give consent; instead a parent or guardian must consent to medical treatment. Competency issues may arise with mentally ill individuals or those who have diminished mental capacity due to retardation or other problems. However, the fact that someone suffers from a mental illness or diminished mental capacity does not mean that the individual is incomp etent. Depending on the type and severity of the disability, the patient may still have the ability to understand a proposed course of treatment. For example, in recent years most jurisdictions have recognized the right of hospitalized mental patients to refuse medication under certain circumstances. Numerous courts have ruled that a mental patient may have the right to refuse antipsychotic drugs, which can produce disturbing side effects. If a patient is incompetent, technically only a legally appointed guardian can make treatment decisions. Commonly, however, physicians defer to family members on an informal basis, thereby avoiding a lengthy and expensive competency hearing. Consent by a family member demonstrates that the doctor consulted someone who knows the patient well and is likely to be concerned about the patient’s well-being. This will probably be sufficient to dissuade a patient from suing for failure to obtain consent should the patient recover. Legal, moral, and ethical questions arise in competency cases involving medical procedures not primarily for the patient’s benefit. These cases typically arise in the context of organ donation from one sibling to another. Many of these cases are approved in the lower courts; the decisions frequently turn on an e xamination of the relationship between the donor and recipient. If the donor and recipient have a relationship that the donor is aware of, actively participates in, and benefits from, courts generally conclude that the benefits of continuing the relationship outweigh the risks and discomforts  of the procedure. For example, one court granted permission for a kidney transplant from a developmentally disabled patient into his brother because the developmentally disabled boy was very dependent on the brother. In another case, a court approved a seven-year-old girl’s donation of a kidney to her identical twin sister after experts and family testified to the close bond between the two. Conversely, a mother successfully fought to prevent testing of her three-and-a-half-year-old twins for a possible bone marrow transplant for a half brother because the children had only met the boy twice and were unaware that he was their brother. Married or emancipated minors, including those in the Armed Services, are capable of giving their own consent. Emancipated means that the minor is self-supporting and lives independently of parents and parental control. In addition, under a theory known as the mature minor doctrine, certain minors may consent to treatment without first obtaining parental consent. If the minor is capable of understanding the nature, extent, and consequences of medical treatment, he or she may consent to medical care. Such situations typically involve older minors and treatments for the benefit of the minor (i.e., not organ transplant donors or blood donors) and usually involve relatively low-risk procedures. In recent years, however, some minors have sought the right to make life- or-death decisions. In 1989, a state court first recognized that a minor could make such a grave decision. A 17-year-old leukemia patient refused life-saving blood transfusions based on a deeply held, family-shared religious conviction. A psychologist testified that the girl had the maturity of a 22-year-old. Ironically, the young woman won her right to refuse treatment but was alive and healthy when the case was finally decided. She had been transfused before the slow judicial process needed to decide such a difficult question led to a ruling in her favor. Some state statutes specifically provide that minors may give consent in certain highly charged situations, such as cases of venereal disease, pregnancy, and drug or alcohol abuse. A minor may also overrule parental consent in certain situations. In one case, a mother gave consent for an Abortion for her 16-year-old unemancipated daughter, but the girl disagreed. A court upheld the daughter’s right to withhold consent. Courts often reach divergent outcomes when deciding whether to interfere with a parent’s refusal to consent to a non-life-threatening procedure. One court refused to override a  father’s denial of consent for surgery to repair his son’s harelip and cleft palate. But a different court permitted an operation on a boy suffering from a severe facial deformity even though his mother objected on religious grounds to the accompanying blood transfusion. In another case, a child was ordered to undergo medical treatments after the parents unsuccessfully treated the child’s severe burns with herbal remedies. Courts rarely hesitate to step in where a child’s life is in danger. To deny a child a beneficial, life-sustaining treatment constitutes child neglect, and states have a duty to protect children from neglect. One case involved a mother who testified that she did not believe that her child was HIV positive, despite medical evidence to the contrary. The co urt ordered treatment, including AZT, for the child. Many other cases involve parents who want to treat a serious illness with nontraditional methods or whose religious beliefs forbid blood transfusions. Cases involving religious beliefs raise difficult questions under the First Amendment’s Free Excise of Religion Clause, Common Law, statutory rights of a parent in raising a child, and the state’s traditional interest in protecting those unable to protect themselves. When a child’s life is in danger and parental consent is withheld, a hospital seeks a court-appointed guardian for the child. The guardian, often a hospital administrator, then consents to the treatment on behalf of the child. In an emergency case, a judge may make a decision over the telephone. In some cases, doctors may choose to act without judicial permission if time constraints do not allow enough time to reach a judge by telephone. In 1982, a six-day-old infant with Down’s syndrome died after a court approved a parental decision to withhold life-saving surgery. The child had a condition that made eating impossible. The baby was medicated but given no nourishment. The public furor over the Baby Doe case eventually helped spur the department of health and human services to create regulations delineating when treatment may be withheld from a disabled infant. Treatment may be withheld if an infant is chronically and irreversibly comatose, if such treatment would merel y prolong dying or would otherwise be futile in terms of survival of the infant, or if such treatment would be virtually futile in terms of survival and the treatment would be inhumane under these circumstances. Although courts overrule parental refusal to allow treatment in many instances, far less common are cases where a court overrides an otherwise competent adult’s denial of consent. The cases where courts have compelled treatment of an adult usually fall into two categories: when the patient was so physically weak that the court ruled that the patient could not reflect and make a choice to consent or refuse; or when the patient had minor children, even though the patient was fully competent to refuse consent. The possible civil or criminal liability of a hospital might also factor into a decision. A court typically will not order a terminally ill patient to undergo treatments to prolong life. Informed Consent Simply consenting to treatment is not enough. A patient must give informed consent. In essence, informed consent means that before a doctor can treat or touch a patient, the patient must be given some basic information about what the doctor proposes to do. Informed consent has been called the most important legal doctrine in patients’ rights. State laws and court decisions vary regarding informed consent, but the trend is clearly toward more disclosure rather than less. Informed consent is required not only in life-or-death situations but also in clinic and outpatient settings as well. A healthcare provider must first present information regarding risks, alternatives, and success rates. The information must be presented in language the patient can understand and typically should include the following: * A description of the recommended treatment or procedure; * A description of the risks and benefits—particularly exploring the risk of serious bodily disability or death; * A description of alternative treatments and the risks and benefits of alternatives; * The probable results if no treatment is undertaken; * The probability of success and a definition of what the doctor means by success; * Length and challenges of recuperation; and  * Any other information generally provided to patients in this situation by other qualified physicians. Only material risks must be disclosed. A material risk is one that might cause a reasonable patient to decide not to undergo a recommended treatment. The magnitude of the risk also factors into the definition of a material risk. For example, one would expect that a one in 10,000 risk of death would always be disclosed, but not a one in 10,000 risk of a two-hour headache. Plastic surgery and vasectomies illustrate two  areas where the probability of success and the meaning of success should be explicitly delineated. For example, a man successfully sued his doctor after the doctor assured him that a vasectomy would be 100 percent effective as Birth Control; the man’s wife later became pregnant. Because the only purpose for having the procedure wa s complete sterilization, a careful explanation of probability of success was essential. Occasionally, informed consent is not required. In an emergency situation where immediate treatment is needed to preserve a patient’s health or life, a physician may be justified in failing to provide full and complete information to a patient. Moreover, where the risks are minor and well known to the average person, such as in drawing blood, a physician may dispense with full disclosure. In addition, some patients explicitly ask not to be informed of specific risks. In this situation, a doctor must only ascertain that the patient understands that there are unspecified risks of death and serious bodily disabilities; the doctor might ask the patient to sign a waiver of informed consent. Finally, informed consent may be bypassed in rare cases in which a physician has objective evidence that informing a patient would render the patient unable to make a rational decision. Under these circumstances, a physician must disclose the information to another person designated by the patie nt. Informed consent is rarely legally required to be in writing, but this does provide evidence that consent was in fact obtained. The more specific the consent, the less likely it will be construed against a doctor or a hospital in court. Conversely, blanket consent forms cover almost everything a doctor or hospital might do to a patient without mentioning anything specific and are easily construed against a doctor or hospital. However, blanket forms are frequently used upon admission to a hospital to provide proof of consent to noninvasive routine hospital procedures such as taking blood pressure. A consent form may not contain a clause waiving a patient’s right to sue, unless state law provides for binding Arbitration upon mutual agreement. Moreover, consent can be predicated upon a certain surgeon doing a surgery. It can also be withdrawn at any time, subject to practical limitations. Right to Treatment In an emergency situation, a patient has a right to treatment, regardless of ability to pay. If a situation is likely to cause death, serious injury, or  disability if not attended to promptly, it is an emergency. Cardiac arrest, heavy bleeding, profound shock, severe head injuries, and acute psychotic states are some examples of emergencies. Less obvious situations can also be emergencies: broken bones, fever, and cuts requiring stitches may also require immediate treatment. Both public and private hospitals have a duty to administer medical care to a person experiencing an emergency. If a hospital has emergency facilities, it is legally required to provide appropriate treatment to a person experiencing an emergency. If the hospital is unable to provide emergency services, it must provide a referral for appropriate treatment. Hospitals cannot refuse to treat prospective patients on the basis of race, religion, or national origin, or refuse to treat someone with HIV or AIDS. In 1986, Congress passed the Emergency Medical Treatment and Active Labor Act (EMTALA) (42 U.S.C.A.  § 1395dd), which established criteria for emergency services and criteria for safe transfer of patients between hospitals. This statute was designed to prevent â€Å"patient dumping,† that is, transferring undesirable patients to another facility. The law applies to all hospitals receiving federal funds, such as Medicare (almost all do). The law requires hospitals to provide a screening exam to determine if an emergency condition exists, provide stabilizing treatment to any emergency patient or to any woman in active labor before transfer, and continue treatment until a patient can be discharged or transferred without harm. It also delineates strict guidelines for the transfer of a patient who cannot be stabilized. A hospital that negligently or knowingly and willfully violates any of these provisions can be terminated or suspended from Medicare. The physician, the hospital, or both can also be penalized up to $50,000 for each knowing violation of the law. One of the first cases brought under EMTALA involved a doctor who transferred a woman in active labor to a hospital 170 miles away. The woman delivered a healthy baby during the trip, but the doctor was fined $20,000 for the improper transfer of the woman. In addition to federal laws such as EMTALA, states may also impose by regulation or statute a duty on hospitals to administer emergency care. There is no universal right to be admitted to a hospital in a nonemergency situation. In nonemergency cases, admission rights depend largely on the specific hospital, but basing admission on ability to pay is severely limited by statutes, regulations, and judi cial decisions. For  example, most hospitals obtained financial assistance from the federal government for construction; these hospitals are required to provide a reasonable volume of services to persons unable to pay. The amount of services to be provided is set by regulation, and the obligation continues for 20 years after construction is completed. Patients must be advised of the hospital’s obligation under the law, or the hospital may be foreclosed from suing to collect on the bill. In addition, many states prohibit hospitals from denying admission based solely on inability to pay; some courts have made similar rulings against public hospitals based on hospital charters and public policy reasons. Hospitals are also prohibited from requiring a deposit from a Medicare or Medicaid patient. Once a patient has been duly admitted to a hospital, she or he has a right to leave at any time, or the hospital could be liable for False Imprisonment. This is so even if the patient has not paid the bill or if the patient wants to leave against all medical advice. In rare cases, such as contagious disease cases, public health authorities may have state statutory or regulatory authority to quarantine a patient. In addition, state laws governing involuntary commitment of the mentally ill may be used to prevent a person of unsound mind from leaving the hospital if a qualified psychiatrist determines that the person is a danger to himself or herself or to the lives of others. A doc tor familiar with a patient’s condition determines when a patient is ready for discharge and signs a written order to that effect. If the patient disagrees with a decision to discharge, she or he has the right to demand a consultation with a different physician before the order is carried out. The decision to discharge must be based solely on the patient’s medical condition and not on nonpayment of medical bills. In the mid-1990s, concern over maternity patients being discharged just a few hours after giving birth prompted legislation at both the state and federal levels. In September 1996, President bill clinton signed a law ensuring a 48-hour hospital stay for a woman who gives birth vaginally and a 96-hour stay for a woman who has a caesarean section, unless the patient and the doctor agree to an earlier discharge. A number of state legislatures have passed similar laws as well. With the rise of Managed Care and Health Maintenance Organizations (HMOs), patients faced new issues involving the right to treatment. HMOs may deny authorization for expensive or experimental treatments, or for treatments  p rovided outside the network of approved physicians. HMOs contend that they must control costs and make decisions that benefit the largest number of members. In response, state legislatures have enacted HMO regulations that seek to give patients a process for appealing the denial of benefits. The HMOs have opposed these measures and have vigorously defended their denial of benefits in court. In Moran v. Rush Prudential HMO, Inc., 536 U.S. 355, 122 S.Ct. 2151, 153 L.Ed.2d 375 (2002), the Supreme Court in a 5–4 decision upheld an Illinois law that required HMOs to provide independent review of disputes between the primary care physician and the HMO. The law mandated that the HMO must pay for services deemed medically necessary by the independent reviewer. Most importantly, the court ruled that the federal Employee Retirement Income Security Act (ERISA) did not preempt the Illinois law. ERISA is an extremely complex and technical set of provisions that seek to protect employee benefit programs. The decision was significant because it empowered other states to enact similar laws that give patients more rights in obtaining treatment Med ical Experimentation Medical progress and medical experimentation have always gone hand in hand, but patients’ rights have sometimes been ignored in the process. Sometimes patients are completely unaware of the experimentation. Experimentation has also taken place in settings in which individuals may have extreme difficulty asserting their rights, such as in prisons, mental institutions, the military, and residences for the mentally disabled. Legitimate experimentation requires informed consent that may be withdrawn at any time. Some of the more notorious and shameful instances of human experimentation in the United States in the twentieth century include a 1963 study in which terminally ill hospital patients were injected with live cancer cells to test their immune response; the Tuskegee Syphilis Study, begun before World War II and continuing for 40 years, in which effective treatment was withheld from poor black males suffering from syphilis so that medical personnel could study the natural cou rse of the disease; and a study where developmentally disabled children were deliberately infected with hepatitis to test potential vaccines. Failure to obtain informed consent can arise even when consent has ostensibly been obtained. The California Supreme Court ruled in 1990 that a physician must disclose preexisting research and  potential economic interests that may affect the doctor’s medical judgment (Moore v. Regents of the University of California, 51 Cal. 3d 120, 793 P. 2d 479). The case involved excision of a patient’s cells pursuant to surgery and other procedures to which the patient had consented. The surgery itself was not experimental; the experimentation took place after the surgery and other procedures. The cells were used in medical research that proved lucrative to the doctor and medical center. Patients in teaching hospitals are frequently asked to participate in research. Participants do not surrender legal rights simply by agreeing to cooperate and validly obtained consent cannot protect a researcher from Negligence. In hospitals, human experimentation is typically monitored by an institutional review board (IRB). Federal regulation requires IRBs in all hospitals receiving fed eral funding. These boards review proposed research before patients are asked to participate and approve written consent forms. IRBs are meant to ensure that risks are minimized, the risks are reasonable in relation to anticipated benefits, the selection of subjects is equitable, and informed consent is obtained and properly documented. Federal regulations denominate specific items that must be covered when obtaining informed consent in experimental cases. IRB approval never obligates a patient to participate in research. Advance Medical Directives Every state has enacted advance medical directive legislation, but the laws vary widely. Advance medical directives are documents that are made at a time when a person has full decision-making capabilities and are used to direct medical care in the future when this capacity is lost. Many statutes are narrowly drawn and specify that they apply only to illnesses when death is imminent rather than illnesses requiring long-term life support, such as in end-stage lung, heart, or kidney failure; multiple sclerosis; paraplegia; and persistent vegetative state. Patients sometimes use living wills to direct future medical care. Most commonly, living wills specify steps a patient does not want taken in cases of life-threatening or debilitating illness, but they may also be used to specify that a patient wants aggressive resuscitation measures used. Studies have shown that living wills often are not honored, despite the fact that federal law requires all hospitals, nursing homes, and other Medi care and Medicaid providers to ask  patients on admission whether they have executed an advance directive. Some of the reasons living wills are not honored are medical personnel’s fear of liability, the patient’s failure to communicate his or her wishes, or misunderstanding or mismanagement by hospital personnel. Another way individuals attempt to direct medical care is through a durable Power of Attorney. A durable power of attorney, or proxy decision maker, is a written document wherein a person (the principal) designates another person to perform certain acts or make certain decisions on the principal’s behalf. It is called durable because the power continues to be effective even after the principal becomes incompetent or it may only take effect after the principal becomes incompetent. As with a Living Will, such a document has little power to compel a doctor to follow a patient’s desires, but in the very least it serves as valuable evidence of a person’s wishes if the matter is brought into court. A durable power of attorney may be used by itself or in conjunction with a living will. When advance medical directives function as intended and are honored by physicians, they free family members from making extremely difficult decisions. They may also protect physicians. Standard medical care typically requires that a doctor provide maximum care. In essence, a livin g will can change the standard of care upon which a physician will be judged and may protect a physician from legal or professional repercussions for withholding or withdrawing care. Right to Die A number of cases have addressed the right to refuse life-sustaining medical treatment. Broadly speaking, under certain circumstances a person may have a right to refuse life-sustaining medical treatment or to have life-sustaining treatment withdrawn. On the one side in these cases is the patient’s interest in autonomy, privacy, and bodily integrity. This side must be balanced against the state’s traditional interests in the preservation of life, prevention of suicide, protection of dependents, and the protection of the integrity of the medical profession. In in re quinlan, 355 A.2d 647 (1976), the New Jersey Supreme Court permitted withdrawal of life-support measures for a woman in a persistent vegetative state, although her condition was stable and her life expectancy stretched years into the future. Many of the emotional issues the country struggles with in the early 2000s were either a direct result of or were influenced by this case,  including living wills and o ther advance medical directives, the right to refuse unwanted treatment, and physician-assisted suicide. The first U.S. Supreme Court decision addressing the difficult question regarding the removal of life support was Cruzan v. Director, Missouri Department of Health, 497 U.S. 261, 110 S. Ct. 2841, 111 L. Ed. 2d 224 (1990). Cruzan involved a young woman rendered permanently comatose after a car accident. Her parents petitioned to have her feeding tube removed. The Supreme Court ruled that the evidence needed to be clear and convincing that the young woman had explicitly authorized the termination of treatment prior to becoming incompetent. The Court ruled that the evidence had not been clear and convincing, but upon remand to the state court the family presented new testimony that was deemed clear and convincing. The young woman died 12 days after her feeding tube was removed. The Supreme Court decided two right-todie cases in 1997, Quill v. Vacco, 521 U.S. 793, 117 S.Ct. 2293, 138 L.Ed.2d 834 (1997), and Washington v. Glucksberg, 521 U.S. 702, 117 S.Ct. 2258, 138 L.Ed.2d 772 (1997). I n Glucksberg, the appellate courts in New York and Washington had struck down laws banning physician-assisted suicide as violations of Equal Protection and due process, respectively. The Supreme Court reversed both decisions, finding no constitutional right to assisted suicide, thus upholding states’ power to ban the practice. Though both cases were considered together, Glucksberg was the key right-to-die decision. Dr. Harold Glucksberg and three other physicians sought a Declaratory Judgment that the state of Washington’s law prohibiting assisted suicide was unconstitutional as applied to terminally ill, mentally competent adults. The Supreme Court voted unanimously to sustain the Washington law, though five of the nine justices filed concurring opinions in Quill and Glucksberg. Chief Justice william rehnquist, writing for the Court, based much of his analysis on historical and legal traditions. The fact that most western democracies make it a crime to assist a suicide was backed up by over 700 years of Anglo-American common-law tradition that has punished or disapproved of suicide or assisting suicide. This â€Å"deeply rooted†opposition to assisted suicides had been reaffirmed by the Washington legislature in 1975 when the current prohibition had been enacted and again in 1979 when it pass ed a Natural Death Act. This law declared that the refusal or withdrawal of treatment did not constitute suicide, but it explicitly stated that the act did not authorize Euthanasia. The doctors had argued that the law violated the Substantive Due Process component of the Fourteenth Amendment. Unlike procedural due process which focuses on whether the right steps have been taken in a legal matter, substantive due process looks to fundamental rights that are implicit in the amendment. For the Court to recognize a fundamental liberty, the liberty must be deeply rooted in U.S. history and it must be carefully described. The Court rejected this argument because U.S. history has not recognized a â€Å"right to die† and therefore it is not a fundamental right. Employing the Rational Basis Test of constitutional review, the Court concluded that the law was â€Å"rationally related to legitimate government interests† and thus passed constitutional muster. Privacy and Confidentiality Confidentiality between a doctor and patient means that a doctor has the express or implied duty not to disclose information received from the patient to anyone not directly involved with the patient’s care. Confidentiality is important so that healthcare providers have knowledge of all facts, regardless of how personal or embarrassing, that might have a bearing on a patient’s health. Patients must feel that it is safe to communicate such information freely. Although this theory drives doctor-patient confidentiality, the reality is that many people have routine and legitimate access to a patient’s records. A hospital patient might have several doctors, nurses, and support personnel on every shift, and a patient might also see a therapist, nutritionist, or pharmacologist, to name a few. The law requires some confidential information to be reported to authorities. For example, birth and death certificates must be filed; Child Abuse cases must be reported; and infectious, contagious, or communicable diseases must be reported. In addition, confidential information may also be disclosed pursuant to a judicial proceeding or to notify a person to whom a patient may pose a danger. In spite of the numerous exceptions to the contrary, patients legitimately demand and expect confidentiality in many areas of their treatment. Generally speaking, patients must be asked to consent before being photographed or having others unrelated to the case (including medical students) observe a medical procedure; they have the right to refuse to see anyone not connected to a hospital; they have the  right to have a person of the patient’s own sex present during a physical examination conducted by a member of the opposite sex; they have the right to refuse to see persons connected with the hospital who are not directly involved in the patient’s care and treatment (including social workers and chaplains); and they have the right to be protected from having details of their condition made public. A patient owns the information contained in medical records, but the owner of the paper on which they are written is usually considered the actual owner of the records. The patient’s legal interest in the records generally means that the patient has a right to see the records and is entitled to a complete copy of them. The patient’s rights are subject to reasonable limitations such as requiring inspection and copying to be done on the doctor’s premises during working hours. Federal Patients’ Bill of Rights Dissatisfaction with an expanding corporate healthcare industry dominated by profit margins has spawned numerous reform ideas. One idea that has gained a foothold is a patients’ federal Bill of Rights. In 1997, President Bill Clinton appointed an Advisory Commission on Consumer Protection and Quality in the Health Care Industry. The commission was directed to propose a â€Å"consumer bill of rights.† The 34-member commission developed a bill of rights that identified eight key areas: information disclosure, choice of providers and plans, access to emergency service, participation in treatment decisions, respect and nondiscrimination, confidentiality of health information, complaints and appeals, and consumer responsibilities. The proposed rights include: the right to receive accurate, easily understood information in order to make informed health care decisions; the right to a choice of healthcare providers that is sufficient to ensure access to appropriate high-quality health care; the right to access emergency healthcare services; the right and responsibility to fully participate in all decisions related to their health care; the right to considerate, respectful care from all members of the healthcare system at all times and under all circumstances; the right to communicate with healthcare providers in confidence and to have the confidentiality of their individually identifiable healthcare information protected; the right to a fair and efficient process for resolving differences with their health plans,  healthcare providers, and the institutions that serve them; and the responsibility of consumers to do their part in protecting their health. This bill of rights has been debated in Congress and there are bipartisan areas of agreement, but, as of 2003, no final action has taken on enacting a set of rights into federal law.

Compare and contrast antigone&letter from a Birmingham jail essay Essay

It is very impressive how Antigone and the â€Å"Letter from a Birmingham Jail† essay are very similar despite being written in two different time periods. Antigone and Martin Luther King Junior both fought for what was good for their society. Antigone buried her brother despite the king stating that her brother was a traitor and that nobody should bury him or honor him in any way. Antigone believed that nobody could dishonor or override the gods, that includes the king. Antigone was punished. She was thrown into a cave and walled off to die slowly but she committed suicide instead. Antigone fought for what was morally right. Martin Luther king Jr. fought for civil rights in the south. At the time the south was segregated between whites and blacks,the whites often had the newest and best things. Dr. MLK believed that no matter your race, heritage or county of origin everyone should be treated equally and get to have the same opportunities to be successful. MLK got thrown in jail for parading, his anti-racism views. MLK successfully brought two different cultures of people together that had never been around each other before. neither group accepted each other with open arms but after a short backlash everyone learned to accept each other and live together as one. Dr. Martin Luther King was assassinated on a hotel balcony after standing up for what was right and what was needed to be done at the time. Antigone stood up to the king so she could respect the gods and MLK stood up for blacks civil rights. what makes them comparable is that they both changed society positively whether it be the culture or the spiritual side of things. There is a clear difference in how each protagonist died, but then Antigone and MLK go back to being very similar in the reason why they died. The man that shot Dr. Martin Luther King thought that he deserved to be punished, so that man in his mind did what he thought was the correct thing to do. In Antigone the king demonstrated the action that he thought was appropriate for Antigone disobeying his command. Both MLK and Antigone understood the risks but they still choose to stand up for what they believed what was right. MLK and Antigone are heroes who sacrificed themselves for the better of the world, both showed bravery when no one else would. Martin Luther King Jr. did what he did so future generations could be in peace with each other. Antigone did what she did to prove to the king that no mere mortal has the right to deny any person their rights to honor and pay their respects to the dead.

Business writing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 2

Business writing - Essay Example This paper will examine imperative areas to consider before investing in a country like France. One of the areas that need monitoring is the French economy. It is tantamount for anyone interested in investing in a foreign land to identify the state of their economy. To ensure his/her stability after the investment, an investor needs knowledge on the economic standing of the country over the past years. This presents them with the autonomy to choose if they are willing to invest in that country, or not. Whatever an investor is going to invest in the foreign land, they must look at the government’s stake in all of it. Government interests are always an area of concern. As an investor, one should be wary of their hand in some of the corporate dealings (Bureau of Economic and Business Affairs 2). One needs government authorization for some ventures, and it is crucial to involve government authorities. In conclusion, to invest in any foreign land, some requirements must be met. These requirements enable one to work effectively, and without many problems. Some transfer policies make it hard for foreign investors to make a profit from their activities (Bureau of Economic and Business Affairs 3). This is another area that one needs to focus on to avoid inconveniences, or losses. Knowledge gained in such a field enables one to flourish and benefit from such investment. Through all this, growth and development in the local area is

Capitol Punishment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Capitol Punishment - Essay Example The issue is approached using key points such as the moral implications of death penalty and the effectiveness of this method in deterring crimes. The judicial system of any state should be primarily concerned with the upholding of the rights of aggravated parties since it is their rights which were initially violated. The emotional and psychological effect of such violation is not only experienced by the victim but his/her family and community as well. In this regard, they deserve the type of justice in accordance with the degree by which their rights were violated. With this, heinous crimes such as murder should be punishable by death. The Roman Catholic Church and organizations like Amnesty International counter that the morality of this punishment is questionable since even the life of criminals are deemed sacred. This argument may not be simply accepted by the victims whose lives were intentionally violated and their families as well. They too have the right to be ensured that punishments for crimes against them have been carried out and other people in the community would not have to suffer the same fate. The capital punishment is considered as a way to deter crime since convicted criminals may no longer roam the streets with increased likelihood of repeating the offense.

Contingency Perspective Of Leadership Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Contingency Perspective Of Leadership - Essay Example Leadership is considered as a controlling power that is bestowed on a person to achieve certain aims. The leader, having specific aims, is now responsible to achieve those aims. There are a number of leadership perspectives available to individuals. A true and successful leader, however, is the one who realizes the suitability and effectiveness of certain leadership style on the team and environment he is working with. Contingency perspective of leadership provides such a mechanism where leaders have to be flexible in their attitudes, working and demands. This perspective involves the analysis of situation on which the leader has to decide on things. The contingency approach of leadership is associated with the path-goal theory more closely than others (Dubrin, 2001 pp. 32-34). The path-goal theory follows the same idea as defined in the expectancy theory of motivation. The main idea is the relationship or connection between the leaders behaviours on employee participation and perfor mance in achieving the tasks assigned to them. The path-goal theory is more inclined towards the rewards in order to attain higher motivation of employees and higher performance efficiency. Path-goal theory emphasizes on servant leaders, who are less dominating and more helpful. The leaders working under the contingency perspective of leadership are more like coaches, facilitators and guides to the employee team. Directive leadership which points towards the task-oriented leadership. The leader explains the task clearly, provides a framework to follow and describes the standards against which the performance would be measured. This style of leadership use rewards and payments as a tool of motivation. Supportive Leadership may also be termed as people-oriented leadership. The leader following this style is supportive in actions, words and behaviours. A supportive leader is respectful, honest and pleasant with the employees. Having a friendly attitude,

British Prime Minister Become Too Powerful Essay

British Prime Minister Become Too Powerful - Essay Example Prime minister is the party leader in the House of Commons because of rights accorded in selecting the cabinet, deciding agenda in cabinet meetings; hand out most of the departmental positions where he also chairs the parliamentary progress. The prime minister who is in the House of Commons has authorities to dismiss ministers from the house. He has power to direct and control policies for the government as the chief executive. The prime minister is ultimately accountable for policies and government decisions, he also oversees the civil service and other governmental agencies and appoints cabinet members and serves as the principal government member in the House of Commons. He or she heads the government, providing political leadership within the government cabinet system and the country at large. Its specific tasks include appointment and dismissal of government ministers, presiding over the cabinet and its committee (Dooley 172). It is also bound to set date of meetings and general elections and as well present the state in the international arena. According to Kevin Dooley (2009), the British prime minister is the most powerful voice in the British politics. The British prime minister is elected by the majority party in the House of Commons. The connection allows the British prime minister to have the ability to be actively engaged. The prime minister is ultimately accountable for policies and government decisions, he also oversees the civil service and other governmental agencies.

Strategic Quality and System Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Strategic Quality and System Management - Essay Example Each of these phases requires careful planning, which operations management facilitates in achieving. Through specialisation of activities, it becomes possible to produce in mass quantities in short duration alongside of meeting the objectives of quality. The process of effective operations management involves setting up suitable facilities, procuring resources and developing effective supply chain strategies. Work force management, training and communicating with clients are also essential peripheral activities associated with operations management (Heizer, Render and Weiss, 2004). The prime motive of an operations management process is to develop systems which facilitate manufacturing quality goods and services. The system design includes phases such as product development, process planning and capacity panning (Slack, Chambers and Johnston, 2010). Product development is a vital part of the success of operations management process. The designed product must be as per the needs and objectives of the organisation. Products must be designed in a manner such that they offer differential benefits to customers as compared with existing competitors (Slack, Chambers and Johnston, 2010). Product designing process would broadly include two important phases, namely technical component and business component. The technical components would include planning for the required tools, machines and selecting the sequence of operations. The business component includes selecting proper human resource and management systems so that the output is achieved as per the pre establishe d plans and objectives of the organisation (Voss, Tsikriktsis and Frohlich, 2002). Process planning is a method which matches and allocates the resources required to different production activities, as per the product design. The capacity planning process includes forecasting demand and determining the type of resources which needs to be acquired

3_08 Employee Performance Appraisal Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

3_08 Employee Performance Appraisal - Essay Example Create room for personal evaluation-it is good to come up with a blank document and ensure that employees continually rate themselves using the same procedure you will rate them. Majority will appreciate participating in the process. Show respect-it is good to send clear signals to each employee and tell them that the meeting is of great importance. Start documentation at an early stage and work at a good place so as to ensure that work runs smoothly Input much focus-treat the meeting like it’s a great business encounter. It is good to make sure that one does not come up with topics that tend to divert the attention of the general meeting in place. Social elements should not be mixed. Don’t wait-it is good for one to inform employees on anything that is pending rather than wait for things to happen. Ensure that all activities are well taken care of and nothing is left pending for the moment. Be careful on writings-only information that is relevant to the topics should be included in writing. Personal information should not be included in such kinds of documents as they may not be of help. Omissions should not be done on papers. Â  Avoid debating-it is good for one to keep controlling the meeting with a further reigning in the discussions that arise. A manager is supposed to have the final word in the workplace and ensure that work is running smoothly Do not do majority of talking-it is good to let employees do the talking so that one gets the desired kind of feedback from them. Letting them do the talking gives you the opportunity to get the desired feedback from them. Â  Give evaluation deadlines-it is good to handle situations in a more professional manner as a manager. It is good not to let employees comment on the appraisal document. Comments should be done on a separate sheet of

It is up to you Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 3

It is up to you - Coursework Example The best experience is that everybody could give there points and express themselves without any fear as we were all equal. As much as many people consider these tutorials as a waste of money and time, I am not of the same idea because we gained a lot and we made sure we attended lecturers without the fear of the different styles used for teaching or even getting confused in the process. I have to agree though that we had difficulty in understanding some content and I ended up failing in some exams. The phrase, ‘Recognizing and editing sentence fragments’ gave me a lot of hard times in the tutorial as no one could clearly explain it to me. Eventually my grades started improving and I got to understand the things that we were discussing. The time that I had impressive grades in all the courses marked my success point in the tutorials. What I like most is that is that I encounter these things in my life and I don’t have hard time tackling

The Sin Tax bill Reaction Essay Example for Free

The Sin Tax bill Reaction Essay The Sin Tax bill (House Bill 5727 and Senate Bill 3249) is a bill which aims to restructure the existing taxes imposed on alcohol and tobacco goods. On December 20, 2012, President Benigno Aquino III signed the Republic Act 10351 or the sin tax reform 2012. The Sin Tax Bill is a sensationalized issue in the Philippines and it gets several mixed reactions from different stakeholders in the country or Filipinos at large. Filipinos are expected to reduce their vices like alcoholism and smoking as a target result of this Bill. Aquino said the new law aims to favor both the government and the Filipino people since revenues to be generated from the measure will be used to fund health insurance programs for the poor, and build and renovate hospitals in the country. Most families of Filipinos especially those who are not residing in urban areas are farmers. The source of their livelihood is farming tobacco products and harvesting fermented liquors, in our dialect â€Å"tuba†. They are now the immediate concern that the government should consider upon the approval of this Bill. Higher taxes on tobacco products mean lesser income for these farmers. Especially, that they are not the owner of the lands they’re farming, they also pay lease for the lands. Unemployment is one of the possible outcomes of the Sin Tax Bill, especially on our farmers. If they become jobless, they likely can resort to different illegal activities just to provide for their family. The aim of the Sin tax Bill is to discourage smokers and alcoholics. But the problem here is that, especially on Filipinos who claim that these vices are addiction to them, they would still continue smoking and drinking alcoholic beverages, to the point that they would sacrifice some of the immediate needs of their families just to sustain their wants. Filipinos are very steadfast on every endeavor they undertake. But they have this mindset that the Programs of the Government are not reaching the true and deserving beneficiaries, like farmers. They may not benefit from these health programs because in the first place they are not living in the cities where standard and quality health responses are located. Maybe these projects may be beneficial to the Filipinos but what of the immediate impact on these increases of taxes? Different Tobacco and Alcoholic Beverages companies might also decrease the salaries of their workers or lay-off employees because its production will become more expensive. It will really affect factory workers and even small-scale business owners. On the other hand, I think this Sin Tax Bill has its positive goals especially to the youth of the nations. Most consumers of these â€Å"sin goods† are youth. With the presence of this bill, there will be higher prices on different cigarettes and alcoholic drinks and since they cannot afford it, they will be discouraged to smoke and drink alcohols. Let’s just cross our fingers that the youth will not resort to illegal means just to continue their vices, especially the out-of-school-children-and-youths. Since they do not have a proper education, we should take it into account that OSCYs are more vulnerable to these vices and if they are not guided properly, this Sin Tax Bill will make sins bigger.

Context of Indigenous health Essay Example for Free

Context of Indigenous health Essay Historical context and social determinants of Indigenous health There is a clear relationship between the social disadvantages experienced by Indigenous people and their current health status [1]. These social disadvantages, directly related to dispossession and characterised by poverty and powerlessness, are reflected in measures of education, employment, and income. Before presenting the key indicators of Indigenous health status, it is important, therefore, to provide a brief summary of the context within which these indicators should be considered. The historical context of Indigenous health Indigenous peoples generally enjoyed better health in 1788 than most people living in Europe [2][3][4][5][6]. They did not suffer from smallpox, measles, influenza, tuberculosis, scarlet fever, venereal syphilis and gonorrhoea, diseases that were common in 18th century Europe. Indigenous people probably suffered from hepatitis B, some bacterial infections (including a non-venereal form of syphilis and yaws) and some intestinal parasites. Trauma is likely to have been a major cause of death, and anaemia, arthritis, periodontal disease, and tooth attrition are known to have occurred. The impact of these diseases at a population level was relatively small compared with the effects of the diseases that affected 18th century Europe. All of this changed after 1788 with the arrival of introduced illness, initially smallpox and sexually transmissible infections (gonorrhoea and venereal syphilis), and later tuberculosis, influenza, measles, scarlet fever, and whooping cough [3][4][7][8]. These diseases, particularly smallpox, caused considerable loss of life among Indigenous populations, but the impacts were not restricted to the immediate victims. The epidemic also affected the fabric of Indigenous societies through depopulation and social disruption. The impact of introduced diseases was almost certainly the major cause of death for Indigenous people, but direct conflict and occupation of Indigenous homelands also contributed substantially to Indigenous mortality [7][9][10]. The initial responses of Indigenous people to the arrival of the First Fleet were apparently quite peaceful. It didnt take long, however, before conflict started to occur initially over access to fish stocks and then over access to other resources as non-Indigenous people started to plant crops and introduce livestock. This pattern of conflict was almost certainly widespread as non-Indigenous people spread across the country. Conflict escalated in many places, in some instances resulting in overt massacres of Indigenous people. The 1838 massacre at Myall Creek (near Inverell, NSW) is the most infamous [11], but less well-known massacres occurred across Australia [10]. As Bruce Elder notes, as painful and shameful as they are, the massacres should be as much a part of Australian history as the First Fleet, the explorers, the gold rushes and the bushrangers ([10], p. vi). Prior to 1788, Indigenous people were able to define their own sense of being through control over all aspects of their lives, including ceremonies, spiritual practices, medicine, social relationships, management of land, law, and economic activities [12][13][14]. In addition to the impacts of introduced diseases and conflict, the spread of non-Indigenous peoples undermined the ability of Indigenous people to lead healthy lives by devaluing their culture, destroying their traditional food base, separating families, and dispossessing whole communities [3][4][7]. This loss of autonomy undermined social vitality, which, in turn, affected the capacity to meet challenges, including health challenges; a cycle of dispossession, demoralisation, and poor health was established. These impacts on Indigenous populations eventually forced colonial authorities to try to protect remaining Indigenous peoples. This pressure led to the establishment of Aboriginal protection boards, the first established in Vic by the Aboriginal Protection Act of 1869 [15]. A similar Act established the NSW Aborigines Protection Board in 1883, with the other colonies also enacting legislation to protect Indigenous populations within their boundaries. The protection provided under the provisions of the various Acts imposed enormous restrictions on the lives of many Indigenous people. These restrictions meant that, as late as 1961, in eastern Australia nearly one-third of all Australians recorded as being of Aboriginal descent lived in settlements ([16], p. 4). The provisions of the Acts were also used to justify the forced separation of Indigenous children from their families by compulsion, duress or undue influence ([15], p. 2). The National Inquiry into the separation of the children concluded that between one-in-three and one-in-ten Indigenous children were forcibly removed from their families and communities in the period from approximately 1910 until 1970 ([15], p. 31). It was the 1960s, at the earliest, when the various protection Acts were either repealed or became inoperative. The importance of contemporary social determinants and cultural concepts of Indigenous health The health disadvantages experienced by Indigenous people can be considered historical in origin [14], but perpetuation of the disadvantages owes much to contemporary structural and social factors, embodied in what have been termed the social determinants of health [1][17][18]. In broad terms, economic opportunity, physical infrastructure, and social conditions influence the health of individuals, communities, and societies as a whole. These factors are specifically manifest in measures such as education, employment, income, housing, access to services, social networks, connection with land, racism, and incarceration. On all these measures, Indigenous people suffer substantial disadvantage. For many Indigenous people, the ongoing effects of protection and the forced separation of children from their families compound other social disadvantages. It is also important in considering Indigenous health to understand how Indigenous people themselves conceptualise health. There was no separate term in Indigenous languages for health as it is understood in western society [19]. The traditional Indigenous perspective of health is holistic. It encompasses everything important in a persons life, including land, environment, physical body, community, relationships, and law. Health is the social, emotional, and cultural wellbeing of the whole community and the concept is therefore linked to the sense of being Indigenous. This conceptualisation of health has much in common with the social determinants model and has crucial implications for the simple application of biomedically-derived concepts as a means of improving Indigenous health. The reductionist, biomedical approach is undoubtedly useful in identifying and reducing disease in individuals, but its limitations in addressing population-wide health disadvantages, such as those experienced by Indigenous people, must be recognised. Indicators of Indigenous social disadvantage. The key measures in these areas for Indigenous people nationally include: Education According to 2011 Australian Census [20]: 92% of 5 year-old Indigenous children were attending an educational institution 1. 6% of the Indigenous population had not attended school compared with 0. 9% of the non-Indigenous population 29% of Indigenous people reported year 10 as their highest year of school completion; 25% had completed year 12, compared with 52% of non-Indigenous people 26% of Indigenous people reported having a post-school qualification, compared with 49% of non-Indigenous people 4. 6% of Indigenous people had attained a bachelor degree or higher, compared with 20% of non-Indigenous people. An ABS school report [21] revealed, in 2011: the apparent retention rate for Indigenous students from year 7/8 to year 10 was 99%, from year 7/8 to year 12 it was 49% for non-Indigenous students, the apparent retention rate from year 7/8 to year 10 was 101%; and from year 7/8 to year 12 it was 81%. The 2011 national report on schooling in Australia [22] showed: 76% of Indigenous students in year 3 and 66% in year 5 were at or above the national minimum standard for reading, compared with 95% and 93% respectively of all Australian students 80% of year 3 Indigenous students and 69% of year 5 Indigenous students were at or above the national minimum standard for persuasive writing, compared with 96% of all year 3 students and 94% of all year 5 students 72% of year 3 Indigenous students and 69% of year 5. Indigenous students were at or above the national minimum standard for spelling, compared with 94% of all year 3 students and 93% of all year 5 students 71% of year 3 Indigenous students and 65% of year 5 Indigenous students were at or above the national minimum standard for grammar and punctuation, compared with 94% of all year 3 students and 94% of all year 5 students 84% of Indigenous students in year 3 and 75% in year 5 were at or above the national minimum standard for numeracy, compared with 96% and 96% respectively of all Australian students. Employment According to the 2011 Australian Census [20]: 42% of Indigenous people aged 15 years or older were employed and 17% were unemployed. In comparison, 61% of non-Indigenous people aged 15 years or older were employed and 5% were unemployed the most common occupation classification of employed Indigenous people was labourer (18%) followed by community and personal service workers (17%). The most common occupation classification of employed non-Indigenous people was professional (22%). Income According to the 2011 Australian Census [20]: the mean equivalised gross household income for Indigenous persons was around $475 per week approximately 59% of that for non-Indigenous persons (around $800). Indigenous population Based on information collected as a part of the 2011 Census of Population and Housing, the ABS has estimated the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander population at 669,736 people at 30 June 2011 [23]. The estimated population for NSW was the highest (208,364 Indigenous people), followed by Qld (188,892), WA (88,277), and the NT (68,901) (Table 1). The NT has the highest proportion of Indigenous people among its population (29. 8%) and Vic the lowest (0. 9%). Table 1: Estimated Indigenous population, by jurisdiction, Australia, 30 June 2011 JurisdictionIndigenous population (number)Proportion of Australian Indigenous population (%)Proportion of jurisdiction population (%) Source: ABS, 2012 [23] Notes: Preliminary estimates are subject to revision; population projections are expected to be finalised by 2014 Australian population includes Jervis Bay Territory, the Cocos (Keeling). Islands, and Christmas Island Proportions of jurisdiction population have used total population figures estimated from demographic information for June 2011 NSW208,36431. 12. 9 Vic47,3277. 10. 9 Qld188,89228. 24. 2 WA88,27713. 23. 8 SA37,3925. 62. 3 Tas24,1553. 64. 7 ACT6,1670. 91. 7 NT68,90110. 329. 8. Australia669,736100. 03. 0 There was a 21% increase in the number of Indigenous people counted in the 2011 Census compared with the 2006 Census2 [24]. The largest increases were in the ACT (34%), Vic (26%), NSW (25%) and Qld (22%). For all jurisdictions, the 55 years and over age-group showed the largest relative increase. There are two structural reasons contributing to the growth of the Indigenous population: the slightly higher fertility rates of Indigenous women compared with the rates of other Australian women (see Births and pregnancy outcome); and the significant numbers of Indigenous babies born to Indigenous fathers and non-Indigenous mothers. Two other factors are considered likely to have contributed to the increase in people identifying as Indigenous: changes in enumeration processes (i. e. more Indigenous people are being captured during the census process); and changes in identification (i. e. people who did not previously identify as Indigenous in the census have changed their response). Based on the 2011 Census, around 33% of Indigenous people lived in a capital city [25]. Detailed information about the geographic distribution of the Indigenous population for 2011 is not yet available, but figures from the 2006 Census indicated that the majority of Indigenous people lived in cities and towns [26]. Slightly more than one-half of the Indigenous population lived in areas classified as major cities or inner regional areas, compared with almost nine-tenths of the non-Indigenous population. (As well as these two classifications of remoteness in terms of access to goods and services and opportunities for social interaction, the Australian Standard Geographical Classification (ASGC) has four other categories: outer regional, remote, very remote, and migratory [27]. ) Almost one-quarter of Indigenous people lived in areas classified as remote or very remote in relation to having very little access to goods, services and opportunities for social interaction ([28], p. 3). Less than 2% of non-Indigenous people lived in remote or very remote areas [26]. In terms of specific geographical areas, more than one-half (53%) of all Indigenous people counted in the 2011 Census lived in nine of the 57 Indigenous regions (based largely on the former Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Commission (ATSIC) regions) [25]. The three largest regions were in eastern Australia (Brisbane, NSW Central and the North Coast, and Sydney-Wollongong), which accounted for 29% of the total Indigenous population. According to the 2011 Census, around 90% of Indigenous people are Aboriginal, 6% are Torres Strait Islanders, and 4% people identified as being of both Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander descent [25]. Around 63% of Torres Strait Islander people3 lived in Qld; NSW was the only other state with a large number of Torres Strait Islander people. The Indigenous population is much younger overall than the non-Indigenous population (Figure 1) [23]. According to estimates from the 2011 Census, at June 2011 about 36% Indigenous people were aged less than 15 years, compared with 18% of non-Indigenous people. About 3. 4% of Indigenous people were aged 65 years or over, compared with 14% of non-Indigenous people. Figure 1. Population pyramid of Indigenous and non-Indigenous populations, 30 June 2011 Population pyramid of indigenous and non-indigenous populations, 2011 Source: ABS, 2012 [23] References Carson B, Dunbar T, Chenhall RD, Bailie R, eds. (2007) Social determinants of Indigenous health. Crows Nest, NSW: Allen and Unwin Jackson LR, Ward JE (1999) Aboriginal health: why is reconciliation necessary?. Medical Journal of Australia; 170(9): 437-440 Butlin NG (1993) Economics and the dreamtime : a hypothetical history. Melbourne: Cambridge University Press Campbell J (2002) Invisible invaders: smallpox and other diseases in Aboriginal Australia 1780-1880. Melbourne: Melbourne University Press Webb S (2009) Palaeopathology of Aboriginal Australians: health and disease across a hunter-gatherer continent. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Anderson W (2007). The colonial medicine of settler states: comparing histories of Indigenous health. Health and History; 9(2): 144-154 Butlin NG (1983) Our original aggression : Aboriginal populations of southeastern Australia, 1788-1850. Sydney: Allen Unwin Thomson N (1991) Tuberculosis among Aborigines. In: Proust AJ, ed. History of tuberculosis in Australia, New Zealand and Papua New Guinea. Canberra, ACT: Brolga Press: 61-67 Reynolds H (1982) The other side of the frontier: Aboriginal resistance to the European invasion of Australia. Ringwood, Victoria: Penguin Books Elder B (2003) Blood on the wattle: massacres and maltreatment of Aboriginal Australians since 1788. 3rd ed. Frenchs Forest, N. S. W: New Holland Harrison B (1978) The Myall Creek massacre. In: McBryde I, ed. Records of times past : ethnohistorical essays on the culture and ecology of the New England tribes. Canberra: Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies: 17-51 Howitt R (2001) Rethinking resource management : justice, sustainability and Indigenous peoples. London: Routledge Hunter E (1993) Aboriginal health and history: power and prejudice in remote Australia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Saggers S, Gray D (1991) Aboriginal health and society: the traditional and contemporary Aboriginal struggle for better health. North Sydney: Allen and Unwin National Inquiry into the Separation of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Children from their Families (1997) Bringing them home: report of the National Inquiry into the Separation of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Children from their Families. Retrieved 17 November 2011 from http://www. humanrights. gov. au/pdf/social_justice/bringing_them_home_report. pdf Long JPM (1970) Aboriginal settlements: a survey of institutional communities in eastern Australia. Canberra: Australian National University Press Marmot M (2004) The status syndrome: how social standing affects our health and longevity. New York: Holt Paperbacks Wilkinson R, Marmot M (2003) Social determinants of health: the solid facts. Denmark: World Health Organization National Aboriginal Health Strategy Working Party (1989) A national Aboriginal health strategy. Canberra: Department of Aboriginal Affairs Australian Bureau of Statistics (2012) Census of population and housing: characteristics of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians, 2011. Canberra: Australian Bureau of Statistics Australian Bureau of Statistics (2011) Schools, Australia, 2010. Canberra: Australian Bureau of Statistics Australian Curriculum Assessment and Reporting Authority (2011) National Assessment Program Literacy and Numeracy: achievement in reading, persuasive writing, language conventions and numeracy: national report for 2011. Sydney: Australian Curriculum Assessment and Reporting Authority Australian Bureau of Statistics (2012) Australian demographic statistics, March quarter 2012. Canberra: Australian Bureau of Statistics Yap M, Biddle N (2012) Indigenous fertility and family formation: CAEPR Indigenous population project: 2011 census papers. Canberra: Centre for Aboriginal Economic Policy Research Australian Bureau of Statistics (2012) Census of population and housing counts of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians, 2011. Canberra: Australian Bureau of Statistics Australian Bureau of Statistics (2010) Population characteristics.

Strategic Change Approaches To Change Management Commerce Essay

Strategic Change Approaches To Change Management Commerce Essay It is imperative that organisations maintain a greater reach, are present in various different places and constantly abreast of regional and cultural differences and ensure to integrate these into their strategies for the different market and communities they occupy. Due to the ever growing importance of change within organisations, it has become imperative that managerial staff posses the skill to successfully manage these changes when they occur (Senior, 2002; By, 2005). Merrel (2012) described change as a continuous reality for organisations that intend to survive and prosper in these volatile and unpredictable times. He went further to define change as simply doing things in a way different from what you are used to or doing completely different things. It is in the best interest that all stakeholders within an organisation work together to ensure that changes are managed effectively. Effective change management is generally described as execution of change programmes or initiatives that achieve the goals for which they were intended on time and within budget and also succeed in delivering sustainable benefits to the organisation (ibid). However, major changes within organisations require ample inputs in terms of time, energy and resources. Over time it has been found that majority of change programmes have failed to meet the desired goals of the organisation. Published sources estimate that the success levels of change in organisations may fall as low as 10% (Oakland and Tanner, 2007). Most changes that occur within organisations tend to be intermittent in nature. They usually start off at a particular point and are then followed by a number of steps that result in a final outcome. Every growing organisation experiences a continuous process of evolution. At certain intervals of this growth cycle, organisations have to evaluate, determine or reinstate their standards and processes. This evolution could at sometimes be a slight change or at other times a major overhaul. Where there is a change made in one aspect of the organisation, this usually triggers a chain of events that requires further changes t o be made to other areas within the organisation in order to achieve a new balance (Pandey, 2012). Following the constant evolution and the consequent changes that occur within organisations, effort has to be put in to reinstate and create a new balance to continue working towards the goals and objectives of the business. This new balance is created primarily by the workforce and is not an easy feat. Therefore, it is essential that an effective and reliable change management strategy is employed (Gans, 2011). As defined by Gans (2011) Change Management is a process whereby organisations support members of their workforce that have been affected by one way or another as a result of an organizational change. She went further to stress the importance of accounting for any member of staff affected by the change in the development of a change management strategy. Despite the importance of change management in the business world today and as highlighted previously, Balogun and Hope Hailey (2004) have reported that of all change programmes that have been initiated, there has been a 70% rate of failure. Burnes (2004) suggested that this poor success rate of change management programmes shows a basic absence of an adequate framework of how to carry out and manage changes in organisations. He went further to state that what is currently available to academics and practitioners is a wide range of contradictory and confusing theories and approaches. 2.0 EXISTING APPROACHES TO CHANGE MANAGEMENT There are a number of existing approaches to organizational change and there is continued debate as to which qualifies as the best. This difference in opinion amongst academics and practitioners is the reason that many managers within organisations may have reservations on the importance and validity of existing literature on change management. It is also a reason for confusion as to which approach to employ when considering change (Bamford and Forrester, 2003).These reservations are further fuelled by the existing critical management literature that highlights numerous incidents of change programmes that have gone wrong. Based on the literature, amongst a few others, there are two main approaches to change; emergent and planned (ibid). In this article, we would be looking into the two main approaches to change, highlighting their weakness and strengths, by critically analysing the already existing literature on the topic. 2.1 PLANNED CHANGE This approach to organisational change is described as a process that moves from one set state to another through a succession of pre arranged steps. This approach to change can be analysed using various frameworks, such as the Lewins (1951) action research model and Lewins (1958) three step model which describes the three stages of change as freezing- holding on to the familiar, unfreezing brainstorming, addressing issues and exploring other approaches and refreezing identifying, applying and consolidating values, culture and newly acquired skills to those pre existing and currently desired. This approach to change acknowledges that prior to new characteristics successfully adopted the previous set need to be eliminated, only then can the new set be fully established (Bamford and Forrester, 2003). 2.1a STRENGTHS OF PLANNED CHANGE Burnes (1996 as cited in Eldrod II and Tippet, 2002) identifies planned approach to organisational change as an attempt in explaining the process that initiates change. The planned approach is also thought to highlight the importance to organisations of fully comprehending the different stages that are involved in the process of going from and unsatisfactory state to an unknown desired new state (Eldrod II and Tippett, 2002). Planned change is also credited for considering changes that may not be in direct line with the organisations general transformational vision but are seen to be worth making. It is in tune with the organisational breakdown structure and by virtue of its nature being perceived to be a logical program by stakeholders, providing organisations with a variety of choices of initiatives. Because it is made up of a clear and solid directive, it tends to be easier to circulate to all areas of the organisation. Although this solid directive may in some cases work as a disadvantage as it may make it easier to attack and/or avoid (Weick, 2000; Beer and Nohria, 2000). 2.1b WEAKNESSES OF PLANNED CHANGE Planned change has received a lot of criticism from as early on as the 1980s despite its popularity, (Kanter et al., 1992; Burnes, 1996; By, 2005). It has been faulted for focusing on only small scale incremental change and ignores cases where there may be a need for quick and transformational changes (Burnes, 1996, 2004). Another shortcoming of this approach is the fact that it bases its design on the assumption that organisations operate under conditions that are static and they can move in a pre planned pattern from one stable state to another (Bamford and Forrester, 2003). This approach is also known to ignore situations where a more dictated approach is needed e.g. in a situation where there is a need for rapid change and no room for widespread consultation or involvement (Burnes, 1996, 2004; Kanter et al., 1992; By, 2005). Critics have also argued that this approach is based on the assumption that all the stakeholders involved in the change have a combined interest in carrying it out and that a uniform consensus can be reached with ease (Bamford and Forrester, 2003). This presumption does not take into consideration issues of politics and conflicts that are common place within organisations, but goes further to assume that these can be identified with ease (Burnes, 1996, 2004). Weick (2000; Beer and Nohria, 2000), also highlighted a number of disadvantages of applying the planned change approach. He states that with implementation of the planned change approach, there is a high chance of reversal of the effected change, following the changes; integration of the various parts of the organisation may not take place in a uniform manner, unpredictable results due to limited foresight, a high chance of individuals failing to act out their parts in the change process despite verbally agreeing to do so, adoption of practices that may have been suited elsewhere but may not necessarily yield positive results within the organisation due to a difference in context, failure of top management to have a full understanding of capabilities at the front line and contingencies and finally a delay in execution which would result in the change initiatives being obsolete even before they are implemented. 2.2 EMERGENT CHANGE This approach to change is relatively new and does not have the formal history of planned change. It is believed that this approach covers a wider area of understanding of the issues faced by organisations related to managing change within intricate environments. In this approach, change is perceived to be less reliant on detailed forecasts and plans and is more focused on arriving at an actual understanding of the intricacies of the underlying problems and deriving possible solutions (Bamford and Forrester, 2003). There is also the suggestion that the occurrence of change here is unpredictable that senior managers are unable to effectively select, propose and carry out suitable actions in response (Kanter et al., 1992). The emergent approach to organizational change adopts a bottom up process of initiating and implementation as opposed to a top down. Considering the complex and rapid nature of change, it is deemed impossible for senior management to identify and implement every action necessary to successfully carry out changes. This implies that the role played by senior management must undergo some changes in itself from controller to more of a facilitator of change, as the responsibility for change is seen to be more devolved (Bamford and Forrester, 2003). 2.2a STRENGTHS OF EMERGENT CHANGE It has been established that the business environment is one of uncertainty and the proponents of emergent change have argued that this uncertainty of both the internal and external environments makes the planned approach to change less appropriate. Assuming that organizations operated is an environment that is stable and predictable; there would be little or no need for change. This makes the emergent approach to change much more pertinent than the planned approach (Bamford and Forrester, 2003). Burnes (1996) is of the opinion that emergent change encourages management to pay close attention and gain understanding of strategy, culture, systems, structure and style, looking into how they can work as blockages or facilitators of an effective change process. He goes further to argue that a successful change process is more concerned with gaining an understanding of the complex issues within the organisation and developing a range of options for tackling these issues. It can then be deduced that the emergent change is focused more on the preparation for change and actual implementation as opposed to providing planned steps and objectives for each change programme or initiative (By, 2005). Weick (2000; Beer and Nohria, 2000), insists that change must be more emergent than planned. He is of the opinion that organisations are in a constant state of evolution and there are always change initiatives ongoing on various levels within the organisation. Main stakeholders are always in search of ideas to increase the performance of the organisation and this means that there is a constant flux. It is important that this flux is identified and maximised. Efforts should be made in identifying these little changes occurring in different areas of the organization and they should then be spread to other areas of the organisation. There are no rules that govern the way change is initiated; it simply involves creating a connection between the actions carried out by the individual areas within the business to create a working synergy (Pettigrew and Whipp, 1993). 2.2b WEAKNESSES OF EMERGENT CHANGE Weick (2000; Beer and Nohria, 2000), in his critical analysis also highlighted a number of weaknesses of the emergent approach to change. He noted that emergent changes are too slow to come together, tend to be too negligible to have a noticeable effect on results, are more suited for taking advantages of opportunities than responding to threats, crippled by already existing culture and technology, deficient when competitors are focused on transformation; more generic rather than focused; lack foresight; operates on the assumption that change is driven by intent, which in reality is not always that case and this implies that situations where change is evolutionary or is driven by life cycle would be over looked (Van de Ven and Pool 1995; Weick, 2000; Beer and Nohria, 2000) . One of the main challenges of the emergent change is the fact that is quite new compared to the planned approach and this has led to reservations concerning its consistency and the variety of techniques available (Bamford and Forrester, 2003; Wilson, 1992). Another criticism of the emergent approach is that it is generally made up of models and approaches that lack correlation and only tend to do so in their unified lack of faith for the planned approach to change than to and agreed alternative (Bamford and Forrester, 2003; Dawson, 1994). According to Burnes (1996), to validate the general theory and implementation of the emergent approach to change implies that one has to be of the opinion that all organisation function within a volatile and unpredictable environment to which they constantly have to adapt. This would then bring rise to the assumption that the emergent model is suitable for all organizations, all situations and at all times (ibid). In reality this is clearly not the case. Dunphy and Stace (1993) disagreed on that view arguing that agents of change require a model that is adaptable to different situations and clearly shows how one can adjust their change strategies to achieve the best fit for a particular situation taking into consideration the changing environment (Dunphy and Stace, 1993). 3.0 CONCLUSION Following a review of the existing literature on planned and emeregent approaches to change, it can be concluded that both approaches have fair shares of limitations and advantage. Generally, there seems to be more of a preference for the emergent change approach and this could be because this approach was more recently introduced in comparison to the planned approach and it its design, consideration was taken to address some of the shortcomings that were experience with the planned approach. However, in order to achieve a successful organisational change, it is important that an approach be developed that not only takes into consideration the constantly evolving environment, but also identifies that there are a number of approaches to change. This approach should be flexible to suit the different needs of various organisations as opposed to one that is tailored to be applicable to all organisations. Dunphy and Stace, (1993) clearly state that no two organisations are identical and most probably have varying situations and this would mean that their structure and strategies would also be different and this emphasis the need for a flexible approach to change.

Global Positionning System Versus the Right To Privacy :: GPS Globarl Positioning System Papers

Global Positionning System Versus the Right To Privacy From the beginning of time, man has tried to find out where he was and where he was going. Locating places as well as himself has long been a quest. Mankind developed a number of early inventions to help with this search including the compass, the sextant, the map with longitude and latitude, charts, plans, graphs, telescopes, binoculars and numerous other tools to assist him. The most current, extensive, far-reaching and comprehensive of these is the Global Positioning System (GPS). GPS is a satellite navigation system made up of a network of 24 satellites. The original designers and engineers had military use in mind. It was placed into orbit by the U.S. Department of Defense, and it was originally intended to aid navigation, troop deployment and artillery fire. The official U.S. Department of Defense name for the GPS is the NAVSTAR system, which stands for Navigation Satellite Timing and Ranging. This system cost the United States billions of dollars to develop and build, with the constant additional cost of maintenance. The first GPS satellite was launched in 1978, predating the introduction of the personal computer. The full constellation of 24 satellites was completed in 1994. Each satellite is built to last about 10 years, and replacements are constantly being built and launched into orbit. In the 1980's, by an executive order, the United States Government made the system available for civilian use, and there are no subscription fees or setup charge s. GPS works anywhere in the world, in any weather condition. A GPS satellite weighs approximately 2,000 pounds and is approximately 17 feet across with solar panel extended. The 24 GPS satellites orbit the earth about 12,000 miles above us. They make two complete orbits in less than 24 hours. Currently there are 21 active satellites with 3 operating spares. These satellites are traveling at speeds of approximately 7,000 miles per hour. The GPS satellites are powered by solar energy.

god v satan :: essays research papers

The bible is one of the most will known books in the world (manly because there are a lot of cristons that fell it is necessary to tell as many people as possible). The bible has been translated and printed then and re-translated and re-printed for centuries {from [original langue]}. The bible was all so written about 40 years after the events that it describes. The ferst part of the bible was written by â€Å"James, half brother of Jesus† (http://www.carm.org/bible/biblewhen.htm) wrote it in the â€Å"40's or 50's† (http://www.carm.org/bible/biblewhen.htm) or Galatians written by Paul in the year 49. With all this it is very likely that something got mixed up in the translation. The bible has mixed signs and inconsistent that proves Satan was the god that was referd to in the bible. Satan set about to deceive everyone and lure them in to sin buy offering false redemptions. We all know god created the world in 7 days so we can use this as a gage for God’s design skills. The world is fare from being perfect, and really it has been badly designed. The land mass is bunched together in the northern hemisphere leaving some smaller ilandes but manly water in the southern hemisphere. The magnetic feled of the earth is constantly moving the weather is all messed up. Still leaving some areas on the world heavily populated and others almost desert. Thins is obviously the result of poor planning and for an all-powerful god this is just negugins. Dose this mean God is a bad designer? No because refuses to show himself because that would take away the faith part of the Christianity faith. If you look at the stories in the bible like the story of Jesus (what most the bible is about) the cross he dies on is a great symbol just look at it, it have strong vertical and horizontal lines. These types of lines are carming, sturdy, reliable and if made big can be towering and thretning but because they cross in the middle it is also unsettling as your eyes follow the lines they relaxes and then the center that you came to focus on startles you. The cross is a will designed symbol. The Ten Commandments is another example of great designed. Ten the basus of the decimal system is a mentally satisfying number. If you look at the Ten Commandments you can see they are not all needed like â€Å"Thou shalt not steal† and â€Å"Thou shalt not bear false witness against thy neighbor.

Social Networking Safety :: Social Networks, Facebook, Twitter

MySpace gained popularity when businesses and bands began using it for advertising. Since the launch of Facebook, both have made social networking part of daily life for millions of people worldwide. Internet relationships have become more popular and face-to-face interactions have become more rare. Though these websites allow friends to stay in touch more easily, they also raise safety concerns. Predators have found ways to gain access to innocent bystanders. The age of account users on these sites has become an issue. Parents’ main priority for their children when it comes to the internet is their safety. The safety risk has caused many parents to ban social networking sites in their home. The question on everyone’s mind is, is it worth risking personal safety to communicate more easily? While staying in touch with friends is essential to adolescent development, there are less risky ways to do so. An article by Jennifer Sexton and Marlanda English states that online sites put young people at risk for online predators when they believe they are socializing with friends. Cyber relationships can delay the growth of real relationships according to Sylvia Engdahl in Online Social Networking. Anne Whittaker and Geraldine Wagner wrote that these websites can stimulate the economy by creating advertising opportunities. Advertising and socializing can be combined with these sites, and as Craig Belanger and Laura Finley wrote in an online article, they allow even the shyest of people to express themselves freely. MySpace is a great place to advertise businesses, while Facebook can create the virtual interaction that everyone seeks. Safety precautions can be implemented to ensure only those of suitable age can have access to these sites. Each year there are more advances in technology that allow the world to connect on more personal levels. The new-found popularity of social networking sites accompanies advancements in technology. Social sites allow people around the world to connect with one another in an instant without much hassle. With many great achievements or advancements comes a controversy. The controversy over the popularity and use of social networking sites has alarmed groups of people around the globe. Each group seems to have its own opinion on each miniscule detail of the ever popular sites such as MySpace and Facebook, and they state their opinion in every way possible. While advancements in technology have allowed social networking sites such as MySpace and Facebook to connect people around the world, they may be releasing too much information and therefore making innocent people vulnerable to dangerous situations.

Business & Ethics of Becton Dickinson and the Safety Syringe Controversy Author

Becton Dickinson has been in the middle of the controversy regarding the manufacturing, sale and monopoly of safety syringes used by hospitals, clinics, and doctor and dentist offices.   When the epidemic of AIDS and other lethal and infectious diseases spread across the nation, healthcare workers were still using a conceptualization of the original type of syringe created over 150 years ago (Holding and Carlsen, 1998; Holding and Carlsen, 1998).The healthcare workers realized that they were no longer safe and fought to get safer standards and equipment for use in the work place.By 1998, the federal patent office has given patents to over 1000 designs for safety syringes.   However, only a few were on the market and their initial cost was exorbitant. Even with the Occupational Safety and Health Administration’s (OSHA) enactment of the Bloodborne Pathogen Standard in 1991, and the Needlestick Safety and Prevention Act little has been truly done to protect the healthcare wor kers (Holding & Carlsen, 1998; Holding and Carlsen, 1998, Armstrong, 1991; Vadgama, 2002; Workers at risk, 2002).A prime example was in 2002 when it was approximated that 1600 healthcare workers could contract HIV through needle sticks in that year (Vadgama, 2002),   with a rough estimate cost of $255,000 for the direct and indirect costs associated with that one needle stick (Armstrong, 1991).The fact that Becton Dickinson purchased a number of the patents for safer syringes, they only offered on size when they finally started to manufacture the syringe.   The 3cc was fine for a few tasks in hospitals and clinics, but the 5cc and 10cc were used more often.Becton Dickinson did not offer the shielded syringes in this size, and by buying patents and negotiating with medical supply companies they did not need to make any other size.They continued to sell their original syringes (Holding & Carlson, 1998; Holding & Carlsen, 1998).   These actions defined by the utilitarian approach shows that the company was doing what was good for the company.   In essence, Becton Dickinson was basing their decisions on the corporate population rather than the public.After court battles and settlements the Becton Dickinson Company has finally begun to manufacture all types of safety syringes.   While they are not recommended, they are made and sold .The fact is that while Becton Dickinson was fighting to keep the new safety syringes from the public, Retractable Technologies, Inc created a better and safer syringe with top recommendations for safety and ease of use (Holding, 1991; Holding & Carlsen, 1998).   If Becton Dickinson would have acted ethically and manufactured and researched safety syringes, they would be at the top of the industry. References Armstrong, S. E. (1991, November/December). The Cost of Needle-Stick Injuries: The Impact of Safer Medical Devices.   Nursing Economics. 9(6).   pp. 426-433. Retrieved January 8, 2009 from http://search.ebscohost.co m/login.aspx?direct=true&db=hch&AN=12182254&site=ehost-liveHolding, R.  (April 14, 1998).  Safety Designs Proposed — But Not Produced.  Ã‚  San Francisco Chronicle.  ,  p.A7.  Retrieved  January 10, 2009,  from  Opposing Viewpoints Resource Center  via  Gale: http://find.galegroup.com/ips/start.do?prodId=IPSHolding, R.,  &  Carlsen, W.  (April 13, 1998).  Epidemic Ravages Caregivers / Thousands die from diseases contracted through needle sticks.  Ã‚  San Francisco Chronicle.  ,  p.A1.  Retrieved  January 10, 2009,  from  Opposing Viewpoints Resource Center  via  Gale: